diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index d3ea9c168e..27e1df8c4d 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -563,6 +563,8 @@ Emulates NVMe ZNS SSDs with zone-based interface.
 ```bash
 zns_max_active=0       # Max active zones (0 = unlimited)
 zns_max_open=0         # Max open zones (0 = unlimited)
+zns_num_wc=0           # Write caches, one per zone being written
+                       #   (0 = zns_max_open, or 3 when that is unlimited)
 zns_zd_ext_size=0      # Zone-descriptor extension bytes (0 = none)
 zns_num_conv_zones=0   # Leading conventional zones (0 = all sequential)
 zns_zone_cap=0         # Usable bytes per zone (0 = the whole zone)
diff --git a/hw/femu/femu.c b/hw/femu/femu.c
index edf4ca2666..b5b5a39dc3 100644
--- a/hw/femu/femu.c
+++ b/hw/femu/femu.c
@@ -1907,6 +1907,7 @@ static const Property femu_props[] = {
     DEFINE_PROP_INT64("zns_status_lat", FemuCtrl, zns_params.zns_status_lat, 0),
     DEFINE_PROP_UINT32("zns_max_active", FemuCtrl, zns_params.zns_max_active, 0),
     DEFINE_PROP_UINT32("zns_max_open", FemuCtrl, zns_params.zns_max_open, 0),
+    DEFINE_PROP_UINT32("zns_num_wc", FemuCtrl, zns_params.zns_num_wc, 0),
     DEFINE_PROP_UINT32("zns_zd_ext_size", FemuCtrl, zns_params.zns_zd_ext_size, 0),
     DEFINE_PROP_UINT32("zns_num_conv_zones", FemuCtrl,
                        zns_params.zns_num_conv_zones, 0),
diff --git a/hw/femu/nvme.h b/hw/femu/nvme.h
index 021efe77d2..079e40afea 100644
--- a/hw/femu/nvme.h
+++ b/hw/femu/nvme.h
@@ -1761,6 +1761,7 @@ typedef struct ZNSCtrlParams {
     int64_t zns_status_lat;
     uint32_t zns_max_active;  /* max active zones (0 = unlimited) */
     uint32_t zns_max_open;    /* max open zones (0 = unlimited) */
+    uint32_t zns_num_wc;      /* write caches (0 = zns_max_open, or 3 when unlimited) */
     uint32_t zns_zd_ext_size; /* per-zone descriptor extension bytes (0 = none) */
     uint32_t zns_num_conv_zones; /* leading conventional zones (0 = all sequential) */
     uint64_t zns_zone_cap;       /* usable bytes per zone; 0 = the whole zone */
diff --git a/hw/femu/zns/zftl.c b/hw/femu/zns/zftl.c
index 985bc791c4..1aaafa4b00 100644
--- a/hw/femu/zns/zftl.c
+++ b/hw/femu/zns/zftl.c
@@ -441,11 +441,22 @@ static uint64_t zns_wc_flush(struct zns_ssd* zns, int wcidx, int type,uint64_t s
     while(i < zns->cache.write_cache[wcidx].used)
     {
         for(p = 0;p<zns->num_plane;p++){
+            /*
+             * A partial cache (evicted before its stripe filled) programs
+             * only the pages that hold data; the untouched planes and
+             * pages of the stripe stay free for the zone's later writes.
+             */
+            if (i >= zns->cache.write_cache[wcidx].used) {
+                break;
+            }
             /* new write */
             ppa = get_new_page(zns, zone_idx);
             ppa.g.pl = p;
             for(j = 0; j < flash_type ;j++)
             {
+                if (i >= zns->cache.write_cache[wcidx].used) {
+                    break;
+                }
                 ppa.g.pg = get_blk(zns,&ppa)->page_wp;
                 get_blk(zns,&ppa)->page_wp++;
                 for(subpage = 0;subpage < ZNS_PAGE_SIZE/LOGICAL_PAGE_SIZE;subpage++)
@@ -503,19 +514,16 @@ static uint64_t zns_write(struct zns_ssd *zns, NvmeRequest *req)
 
     if(wcidx==-1)
     {
-        //need flush
-        wcidx = 0;
-        uint64_t t_used = zns->cache.write_cache[wcidx].used;
-        for(i = 1;i < zns->cache.num_wc;i++)
-        {
-            if(zns->cache.write_cache[i].used==0)
-            {
+        /* take an empty cache; failing that, evict the fullest one */
+        uint64_t t_used = 0;
+        wcidx = -1;
+        for (i = 0; i < zns->cache.num_wc; i++) {
+            if (zns->cache.write_cache[i].used == 0) {
                 t_used = 0;
-                wcidx = i; //free wc！
+                wcidx = i;
                 break;
             }
-            if(zns->cache.write_cache[i].used > t_used)
-            {
+            if (wcidx < 0 || zns->cache.write_cache[i].used > t_used) {
                 t_used = zns->cache.write_cache[i].used;
                 wcidx = i;
             }
diff --git a/hw/femu/zns/zns.c b/hw/femu/zns/zns.c
index b4d0c1644a..59162cd25a 100644
--- a/hw/femu/zns/zns.c
+++ b/hw/femu/zns/zns.c
@@ -1794,7 +1794,20 @@ static void zns_init_params(FemuCtrl *n, NvmeNamespace *ns)
     /* one program covers every plane of a die; the flush walks the same set */
     id_zns->program_unit = ZNS_PAGE_SIZE * id_zns->flash_type * id_zns->num_plane;
     id_zns->stripe_unit = id_zns->program_unit*id_zns->num_ch*id_zns->num_lun;
-    id_zns->cache.num_wc = ZNS_DEFAULT_NUM_WRITE_CACHE;
+    /*
+     * One write cache stages the partial stripe of one zone, so a device
+     * needs as many as it lets the host keep open: an open-zone limit
+     * exists to bound exactly these per-zone buffers (Bjorling et al.,
+     * ATC'21). Fewer caches than concurrent writers makes every write
+     * evict another zone's cache and pay a synchronous flush.
+     */
+    if (n->zns_params.zns_num_wc) {
+        id_zns->cache.num_wc = n->zns_params.zns_num_wc;
+    } else if (n->zns_params.zns_max_open) {
+        id_zns->cache.num_wc = n->zns_params.zns_max_open;
+    } else {
+        id_zns->cache.num_wc = ZNS_DEFAULT_NUM_WRITE_CACHE;
+    }
     id_zns->cache.write_cache = g_malloc0(sizeof(struct zns_write_cache) * id_zns->cache.num_wc);
     for(i =0; i < id_zns->cache.num_wc; i++)
     {